Luxury Branding and Strategy
Brand Innovation Management
Design Innovation Management
Design and Marketing of New Product
Design Tools for New Product Development (Especially, Seven Tools for New Product Planning)
Experiential Marketing and Management
Kansei/ Affective Engineering
Sensory Evaluation
Total Quality Management
Environment-Conscious Business (Especially, Environment-Conscious Products and Waste Management and Resource Circulation Business)

Nagasawa's Project Research Seminar at Waseda Business School, Waseda University takes, as research objectives, "Design and Innovation Management" of companies such as European luxury brands and Japanese long-standing companies (Shinise).
It applies the theories of the luxury strategy, experiential marketing, design management, innovation management, etc. and has carried out useful research for the real business world.
The research results have been highly valued both nationally and internationally and have led to the opening of the course 'Luxury Branding Chair Module' donated by LVMH Moët Hennessy. Louis Vuitton since 2012, which highly focuses on luxury branding. This is the first course in Japan and only the second in the world.
Compared to Europe and America, luxury business research in Japan, and research on business for the wealthy classes, have not been active and sufficient in quantity and quality. And business persons in the fields have rarely had the chance to study related facts and theories systematically.
All the seminarists are business persons and experienced persons of business matters and they manage to work at business practices and research at the seminar.
Usually the seminar is conducted through discussions. The seminarist in charge proposes the discussion theme together with his/her research question and all the seminarists discuss on the theme. Though the number of seminarists is somewhat below average, OB/OG or guest sometimes attends the seminar and the seminar is doing a flourishing research and always crowded with participants. The biggest characteristic of the seminar is to enjoy pleasant and sharp discussions.
There are two educational philosophies in Nagasawa Seminar; one is “to have an originality,” and the other is “to obtain dazzling results.” They are essential and important requirements and the seminalists are required to satisfy these necessary requirements. In spite of severe requirements the seminalists can keep their motivations in high level, which lead a lot of results.

“Branding of Manufacturing Process by Luxury Brands and its Application to Local and Long-stanging_Companies in Japan”
FY2018 – FY2022, Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B) (Dicipline: Commerce) (Principal Investigator), Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS)

Table: Received Records of Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research

Project Period	Research Category and Title (Roll)	Dicipline
FY1989	Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists: “Application of Fuzzy Sets Theory to Quality Control” (Principal Investigator)	Commerce and Management
FY1990	Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists: “Application of Fuzzy Sets Theory to Quality Control” (Principal Investigator)	Commerce and Management
FY1992	Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists: “Fundamental Research on Marketing Information System for Kansei Product Development” (Principal Investigator)	Commerce and Management
FY1993	Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Priority Area: “Fundamental Research on Marketing Information System for Kansei Design” (Principal Investigator)	Informatics/ Psychological Presearch of Kansei Information Processing
FY1994	Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Priority Area: “Fundamental Research on Marketing Information System for Kansei Design” (Principal Investigator)	Informatics/ Psychological Presearch of Kansei Information Processing
FY1996	Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B): “Planning Survey for Establishing a Framework of Interdisciplinary Collaborative Research on Kansei” (Investigator)	Material Engineering
FY1996 – 1997	Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C): “Applied Research on Marketing Information System for Kansei Design” (Principal Investigator)	Information Science
FY1997	Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Priority Area (A): “Basic Research on Industrial Cluster Model Considering Integrated Environmental Quality Management” (Investigator)	Construction of Material Circulation Process Aiming at Zero Emission
FY1997 – 1999	Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C): “Research on the Design of Fashion Illustration and Aesthetic Sense” (Investigator)	Kansei Engineering
FY1998	Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Priority Area (A): “Mathematical Model Describing Material Circulation and Prediction and Evaluation of Regional Zero Emissions” (Investigator)	Construction of Material Circulation Process Aiming at Zero Emission
FY1998 – 1999	Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C): “Applied Research on Marketing Information System for Kansei Design” (Principal Investigator)	Kansei Engineering
FY1999 – 2000	Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C): “Research on the Domain and Specificity of Kansei Engineering” (Investigator)	Kansei Engineering
FY2003 – 2005	Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C): “Development of Kansei Measurement System Based on the Interrelationship of Psychological Quantity, Physiological Quantity and Physical Quantity and Its Application to Product Planning” (Principal Investigator)	Kansei Informatics and Soft-computing
FY2009 – 2013	Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B): “Affective Value Creation and Methodologies of Technology Management for the Premium Branding of Local or Traditional Industries in Europe and Japan” (Principal Investigator)	Management
FY2013 – 2015	Grant-in-Aid for Exploratory Research: “Affective Value Creation and Methodologies of Technology Management for the Premium Branding of Local or Traditional Industries in Europe and Japan” (Principal Investigator)	Management
FY2018 – 2022	Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B): “Branding of Manufacturing Process by Luxury Brands and its Application to Local and Long-stanging Companies in Japan” (Principal Investigator)	Commerce

Table: Examination Records of Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research

Year	Title (Roll)	Dicipline
Sep./1997 – Jan./2000	Expert Member, SpecialCommittee of Science Council, Ministry of Education (Examinor of Grant-in-Aidfor Scientific Research (C))	Kansei Engineering
Dec./2010 – Nov./2012	Expert Member, “Committeeof Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research,” Japan Society for the Promotion ofScience (Examinor of Grant-in-Aid forExploratory Research)	Management
Dec./2016 – Nov./2019	Expert Member, “Committeeof Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research,” Japan Society for the Promotion ofScience (Examinor of Grant-in-Aid forScientific Research (B))	Commerce

Table: Research Achievements (except for commentaries other than academic papers and seminars other than conference presentations)

FY	Affiliation	Book/ Translation(Foreign Language)	Academic Paper(Foreign Language)	Conference Presentation(Foreign Language)
1978	Master Course, Waseda Univ.			2 (0)
1979			1   (0)	1 (0)
1980	Nippon Light Metal Co.		2   (0)	1 (0)
1981	Nippon Light Metal Co.／Research Associate, Meiji Univ.		1   (0)	0 (0)
1982	Research Associate, Meiji Univ.		0   (0)	1 (0)
1983		1 (0)	1   (0)	2 (0)
1984			9   (0)	9 (0)
1985			7   (1)	6 (0)
1986			11   (1)	9 (1)
1987		1 (0)	4   (1)	14 (1)
1988	Assistant Prof., Sanno College		3   (0)	10 (2)
1989			5   (0)	4 (0)
1990	Assitant Prof., Asia Univ.	1 (0)	8   (3)	8 (0)
1991	Associate Prof., Asia Univ.	1 (0)	5   (0)	11 (0)
1992		2 (0)	8   (0)	17 (0)
1993		1 (0)	8   (1)	19 (0)
1994		2 (1)	13   (2)	17 (2)
1995	Prof., Ritsumeikan Univ.	3 (0)	11   (0)	11 (0)
1996			11   (5)	7 (0)
1997		1 (0)	8   (3)	12(0)
1998		3 (0)	7   (1)	14 (0)
1999		1 (1)	10   (3)	18 (2)
2000		5 (0)	4   (2)	9 (0)
2001		1 (1)	17   (3)	11 (0)
2002		5 (1)	17   (3)	14 (0)
2003	Prof., Graduate School of Asia-Pacific Studies, Waseda Univ.	7 (0)	18 (14)	27 (7)
2004		3 (1)	13   (3)	18 (1)
2005		8 (1)	12   (6)	31 (3)
2006		4 (1)	11   (4)	14 (0)
2007	Prof., Graduate School of Commerce, Waseda Univ.	6 (1)	13   (8)	26 (3)
2008		4 (1)	19   (9)	34 (6)
2009		12 (2)	19 (12)	20 (6)
2010		6 (1)	19 (14)	13 (2)
2011		2 (1)	18 (14)	22 (1)
2012		1 (0)	20 (13)	27 (3)
2013		3 (0)	15   (9)	24 (0)
2014		6 (0)	23 (18)	23 (0)
2015		5 (1)	23 (20)	14 (2)
2016	Prof., Graduate School of Business & Finance, Waseda Univ.	4 (1)	12   (9)	14 (4)
2017		2 (0)	10   (8)	9 (2)
2018		6 (1)	16   (6)	13 (2)
2019		6 (0)	14 (10)	12 (6)
2020		4 (0)	9 (4)	1 (0)
	Cumulative Total	115 (16)	451 (210)	570 (50)

Note) Including printing. If there is a proceedings (booklet) at the international conference, it is considered as a dissertation.

Table: Editorship (except for guest editor of special issue)

Journal	Publisher	Title	Remarks
Luxury Research Journal, ISSN 2041-3831 (Print), 2041-384X (Online)	The Inderscience Publishers	Editorial Board Member, Regional Editor Japan	Only one of Japanese members
Journal of Global Fashion Marketing, ISSN 2093-2685 (Print), 2325-4483 (Online)	Routledge/ Taylor & Francis Group	Editorial Board Member	One of four Japanese members
Journal of Marketing Trends,ISSN 1961 -7798 (Print) ISSN 2114-8910 (Online)	the Marketing Trends Assoc.	Editorial Board Member	One of four Japanese members
Luxury: History, Culture, Consumption, ISSN 2051-1817 (Print), 2051-1825 (Online)	Routledge/ Taylor & Francis Group	Editorial Advisory Board Member	Only one of Japanese members
International Journal of Quality and Service Sciences, ISSN 1756-669X	Emerald Publishing	Editorial Advisory Board Member	Only one of Japanese members

Table: Chair Professorship and Donated Courses from Private Enterprise (Each Contract)

FY	Chair Professorship and Donated Course (Roll)	Awarded
2012	LVMH Moët Hennessy. Louis Vuitton Chair (Professor in charge of donation course)	JPY8,000,000
2012	ALBION Chair (Professor in charge of donation course)	JPY1,000,000
2013	LVMH Moët Hennessy. Louis Vuitton Chair (Professor in charge of donation course)	JPY8,000,000
2013 – 2014	ALBION Chair (Professor in charge of donation course)	JPY2,000,000
2014	LVMH Moët Hennessy. Louis Vuitton Chair (Professor in charge of donation course)	JPY10,000,000
2015	ALBION Chair (Professor in charge of donation course)	JPY1,000,000
2016	ALBION Chair (Professor in charge of donation course)	JPY1,000,000
2017	ALBION Chair (Professor in charge of donation course)	JPY1,000,000
2017	Kyoritsu Cosmetic Surgery Chair (Professor in charge of donation course)	JPY1,000,000
2017	PROLOGIS Chair (Professor in charge of donation course)	JPY5,000,000
2018	ALBION Chair (Professor in charge of donation course)	JPY1,000,000
2018	Kyoritsu Cosmetic Surgery Chair (Professor in charge of donation course)	JPY1,000,000
2018	PROLOGIS Chair (Professor in charge of donation course)	JPY5,000,000
2019	Kyoritsu Cosmetic Surgery Chair (Professor in charge of donation course)	JPY1,000,000
2019	PROLOGIS Chair (Professor in charge of donation course)	JPY5,000,000
2020	PROLOGIS Chair (Professor in charge of donation course)	JPY5,000,000

Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research being received are linked to the following research results (from FY2018).

Books and Book Chapters

14 books have been published.

1. Nagasawa, Shin’ya, “Foreword,” “Chapter 2: Luxury Market of Mechanical Watches that Japan Developed,” In: Shin’ya Nagasawa (ed.), Practices of Luxury Branding – Strategies of 3.1 Phillip Lim, Panerai, Omega, and Richard Mille –, Kaibundo Publishing, pp.i-vii, 47-106, 195pp., 2018, ISBN 978-4-303-72387-3 (in Japanese)
2. Nagasawa, Shin’ya, “Foreword,” “Chapter 1: Introduction to Logistics,” In: Shin’ya Nagasawa (ed.), Practices of Logistics & SCM – Evolution and Globalization of Physical Distribution –, Koyoshobo, pp.iii-viii, 1-43, 231pp., 2018, ISBN 978-4-7710-3075-6 (in Japanese)
3. Nagasawa, Shin’ya, “Foreword,” In: Shin’ya Nagasawa (ed.), Kansei/Affective Marketing of Local Manufacturing Brands – Katunuma Winery in Yamanashi, Asahi-Shuzo Sake Brewing in Niigata, Oriental Carpet Mille in Yamagatam, and Sato Seni in Yamagata –, Doyukan, pp.iv-x, 326pp., 2019, ISBN 978-4-496-05399-3 (in Japanese)
4. Nagasawa, Shin’ya, “Outline of this Volume,” In: Shin’ya Nagasawa (ed.), Practices of Kansei/Affective & Fashion Industry – Institute for the Fashion Industries, Beams, Yamadamatsu Incense-wood, and Kyoritsu Cosmetic Surgery –, Kaibundo, pp.i-vii, 189pp., 2019, ISBN 978-4-303-72386-6 (in Japanese)
5. Nagasawa, Shin’ya, and Yuji Bando, High-End Disruptive Innovation Theory and its Empirical Validation – Brand Strategies of Richard Mille, Tokyobike, White Mountaineering, and Balmuda –, 157pp., 2019, ISBN 978-4-7710-3108-1 (in Japanese)
6. Nagasawa, Shin’ya, “On the Future of Fetish Value and Affective/ Kansei Value,” In: La Boite ed., Shin'ya Nagasawa (Author), La Boite's 10th Anniversary Commemorative Publication, La Boite (not for sale), pp.2-11, 188pp., 2019 (in Japanese & English)
7. Nagasawa, Shin’ya, “Foreword,” “Chapter 1: Kansei Engineering / Kansei Evaluation / Customer Experience,” “Chapter 2: Study on Product Design and Affective Value for Product Development,” “Chapter 10: Construction of the Theoretical Framework for the Long-standing Strategy,” “Chapter 11: Management of Sustainable Brand Value,” In: Shin’ya Nagasawa (ed.), with Yusuke Irisawa, Norihiro Yamamoto, Kana Sugimoto, et al., Basics of Strategic Development of Kansei Product – Customer Experience, Design, Fulfilment Technology, Brand and Management –, Kaibundo Publishing, pp.i-ii, 3-20, 21-36, 139-154, 155-171, 185pp., 2019, ISBN 978-4-303-72397-2 (in Japanese)
8. Nagasawa, Shin’ya, “Foreword,” In: Shin’ya Nagasawa (ed.), Revolutions of Logistics & SCM – Evolution of Physical Distribution that Opens up the Future –, Koyo Shobo Corporation, pp.iii-viii, 203pp., 2019, ISBN 978-4-7710-3256-9 (in Japanese)
9. Nagasawa, Shin’ya, “Foreword,” In: Shin’ya Nagasawa (ed.), Kansei/Affective Marketing of Traditional Craft Brands – Castings at Nosaku in Toyama, Kyo-kanoko-shibori at Yoshioka Jin Shoten in Kyoto, Nishijin-ori at Tomiya Textile in Kyoto, and Makeup Brush at Hakuhodo in Hiroshima –, Doyukan Inc., pp.i-viii, 266pp., 2019, ISBN 978-4-496-05444-0 (in Japanese)
10. Nagasawa, Shin’ya, “Part 1, Chapter 3: Statistical Analysis of Sensory Evaluation for Product Design and Development,” In: Yoko Akiyama (sups.), Shojiro Takahashi, Hideo Jinguh, Shin’ya Nagasawa, et al., Kansei/Affective Value Creation of Cosmetics – Usability Evaluation and Prescription Design –, CMC Publishing Co., Ltd., pp.30-38, 284pp., 2020, ISBN 978-4-7813-1493-8 (in Japanese)
11. Nagasawa, Shin’ya, “Foreword,” In: Shin’ya Nagasawa (sups.), Ken Kumagai (Author), Store Location Strategy for Kuxury vs. Non-Luxury – Relationship between Ideal Self and Real Self and Brand –, Bunshindo Publishing Corporation, p.iii, 222pp., 2020 (in Japanese), ISBN 978-4-8309-5081-0
12. Nagasawa, Shin’ya, “Outline of this Volume,” In: Shin’ya Nagasawa (ed.), Branding of Kansei/Affective Industry – Grand Seiko, Facterier, Superior High-density Fabric "DICROS," and Heritage Craft Brand "Hirume" –, Kaibundo Publishing, pp.iii-vi, 244pp., 2020, ISBN 978-4-303-72385-9 (in Japanese)
13. Nagasawa, Shin'ya, "Foreword," In: Shin'ya Nagasawa (ed.), Branding of Long-standing Monozukuri (Manugfacturing) Companies –Tsuiki Copper Ware Gyokusendo, Koh Shinise Shoyeido, Kyo Karakami Karacho, and Inden-ya Uehara Yushichi –, Doyukan Inc., pp.i-viii, 251pp., 2020, ISBN 978-4-496-05474-7 (in Japanese)
14. Nagasawa, Shin'ya, and Ryota Kawamura, Monozukuri (Manugfacturing) Branding for Local & Traditional Companies – Why Do Gyokusendo, Katsunuma Winery, Hakuhodo, and Nousaku Grow? –, Koyo Shobo Corporation, 160pp., 2020, ISBN 978-4-7710-3392-4 (in Japanese)

Papers in Refereed or Professional Journals

33 papers have been presented in domestic and international refereed or professional journals. These are the extracts of the papers in English.

1. Jiang, Zhiqing, and Shin'ya Nagasawa: Luxury Brand Information Exposure of Authenticity Influences its Rarity, Conference Papers, 13th Global Brand Conference: Branding in the Digital Age: Innovation & Responsibility, Day 2, Track 3: Brand Love/Hate & Authenticity, pp.1-7, The Academy of Marketing's Brand, Corporate Identity and Reputation Special Interest Group, and Northumbria University, Newcastle, UK, 2018.5.3
2. Nagasawa, Shin'ya, and Norihiro Suganami: Flagship Shop Strategy For Brand Building – Case of UNIQLO –, Proceedings of '2018 Global Marketing Conference at Tokyo,' pp.1144-1156, Global Alliance of Marketing & Management Associations, 2018.7.28, ISSN 1976-8699
3. Nagasawa, Shin'ya: Promotion of the Fair and Structural Reform of the Industrial Waste Management Contractors in Japan, Conference Proceedings of 'Going Green: CARE INNOVATION 2018 – Towards a Resource Efficient Economy, 7th International Symposium and Environmental Exhibition –,' 3.2.4 Legislation Updates pp.1-9, CARE Electronics, 2018.11.28
4. Kuo, Chi-Hsien, and Shin'ya Nagasawa: Deciphering Luxury Consumption Behaviour through Knowledge- Attitude-Behaviour Perspectives, Proceedings of 18th International Marketing Trends Conference (IMTC2019), Research Session Luxury Industries, pp.1-16, ESCP-EAP Europe Paris, 2019.1.19, ISBN 978-2-9532811-2-5
5. Nagasawa, Shin'ya: Promotion of the Fair and Structural Reform of the Industrial Waste Management Contractors in Japan, Waseda Business & Economic Studies, No.53, pp.15-32, Graduate School of Commerce, Waseda University, 2019.3.31, ISSN 0388-1008
6. Kumagai, Ken, and Shin'ya Nagasawa: Psychological Switching Mechanism of Consumers' Luxury and Non-luxury Brand Attitude Formation: The Effect of Store Location Prestige and Self-congruity, Heliyon, Vol.5, Iss.5, e01581 (pp.1-12), Elsevier, 2019.5.14, ISSN 2405-8440, DOI 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01581
7. Kumagai, Ken, and Shin'ya Nagasawa: Subjective Well-being and Brand Luxury: A Comparative Discussion between Physical Stores and E-Retailers, Proceedings of 'Global Fashion Marketing Conference at Paris,' Session 1.1, pp.1-18, Global Alliance of Marketing & Management Associations, 2019.7.12
8. Nagasawa, Shin'ya: On the Future of Fetish/ Affective Value, Journal of Textile Science & Fashion Technology, Vol.3, Iss.3, pp.1-4, Iris Publishers, 2019.8.2, ISSN 2641-192X, DOI 10.33552/JTSFT.2019. 03.000564
9. Kuo, Chi-Hsien, and Shin'ya Nagasawa: Applying Machine Learning to Market Analysis: Knowing Your Luxury Consumer, Journal of Management Analytics, Vol.6, Iss.4, pp.1-16, Taylor & Francis, 2019.11.15, ISSN 2327-0012 (Print) 2327-0039 (Online), DOI 10.1080/23270012.2019.1692254
10. Nagasawa, Shin'ya, and Norihiro Suganami: Luxury Strategy by Daily Fashion Brand of UNIQLO – Flagship Shop Strategy for Large Store Location –, Journal of Textile Science & Fashion Technology, Vol.4, Iss.2 pp.1-6, Iris Publishers, 2019.12.3, ISSN 2641-192X, DOI 10.33552/JTSFT.2019.04.000584
11. Kuo, Chi-Hsien, and Shin'ya Nagasawa: The More You Know, The More You Buy? Knowledge and Engagement Drive Luxury Purchasing, In: Eldon Y. Li, and Honglei Li (eds.), Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Electronic Business (ICEB2019), pp.456-463, Northumbria University Newcastle, U.K., 2019.12.10, ISSN 1683-0040
12. Jiang, Zhiqing, and Shin'ya Nagasawa: A Conceptual Framework on the Influence of Authenticity and Rarity on Luxury Brand Value, In: Dimitri Uzunidis (dir.), Vanessa Casadella, and Bérangère L. Szostak (eds.), Market and Organization (Marché et Organisation), Vol.37, Rethinking Luxury Business, pp.123-145, L'Harmattan, 2020.1.10, ISBN 978-2-343-19418-9
13. Kumagai, Ken, and Shin'ya Nagasawa: Consumer Perceptions of Apparel Brand Prestige in Upward Comparisons with Adjacent Store Brands: The Assimilation and Contrast Effects, Proceedings of 19th International Marketing Trends Conference (IMTC2020), Academic Research Session "Luxury Industries Marketing Strategies," pp.1-10, ESCP-EAP Europe Paris, 2020.1.18, ISBN 978-2-9532811-2-5
14. Nagasawa, Shin'ya and Norihiro Suganami: Flagship Shop Strategy for Brand Building – Case of MUJI –, Proceedings of 19th International Marketing Trends Conference (IMTC2020), Academic Research Session "Retail Strategy and Retail Brands," pp.1-17, ESCP-EAP Europe Paris, 2020.1.18, ISBN 978-2-9532811-2-5
15. Kuo, Chi-Hsien, and Shin'ya Nagasawa: Deciphering Luxury Consumption Behaviour from Brand Knowledge Perspectives, Journal of Business and Management, Vol.26, No.1, pp.1-21, The Department of Management Information Systems at College of Commerce, National Chengchi University, 2020.3.1, ISSN 1535-668X, http://jbm.nccu.edu.tw/pdf/volume/2601/JBM-2601-01-full.pdf
16. Nagasawa, Shin'ya, and Norihiro Suganami: Luxury Strategy by Simple and Pleasant Life-Style Brand of MUJI – Flagship Store Strategy for Large Store Location –, Journal of Textile Science & Fashion Technology, Vol.6, Iss.4, pp.1-7, Iris Publishers, 2020.8.20, ISSN 2641-192X, DOI 10.33552/JTSFT. 2020.06.000642
17. Nagasawa, Shin'ya, and Norihiro Suganami: Flagship Store Strategy for Brand Building – Comparison between Luxury Brands and SPA Brands –, 2020 Global Marketing Conference at Seoul Proceedings (November 2020), pp.500-513, Global Alliance of Marketing & Management Associations, 2020.11.6, ISSN 1976-8699
18. Nagasawa, Shin'ya, and Norihiro Suganami: Luxury Strategy Comparing SPA Brands and Luxury Brands – Flagship Store Strategy for Large Store Location –, Journal of Textile Science & Fashion Technology, Vol.7, Iss.4, being printed, Iris Publishers, 2020.12.25, ISSN 2641-192X, DOI 10.33552/JTSFT. 2020.07.000000

In addition Nagasawa Seminar has become the seminar of Luxury Branding Module, whose official name of subject is “Project Research/ Degree Thesis” of Luxury Branding. Research Field has been much focused on Luxury Branding than before.