草原考古通信 No. 13, March 2002
The Metal Cauldrons Recovered in Xinjiang, Northwest China
Jianjun Mei
Xinjiang region, west of Gansu and Qinghai provinces in Northwest China, is well known as an important crossroads on the ancient Silk Road. It has been widely recognized as a pivotal region for understanding early cultural interaction between China and Central Asia (Shui 1993; Di Cosmo 1996). One of the important signs for cultural changes in Xinjiang from the early first millennium BC is the appearance of metal cauldrons, which was clearly related to the rise of nomadic way of life on the Eurasian steppe. In this short article, a brief survey of the metal cauldrons recovered in Xinjiang and the analysis results of five cauldrons are presented.
1. The finds of metal cauldrons in Xinjiang
So far more than two dozens of metal cauldrons have been found in Xinjiang, and most of them can be dated to the mid-first millennium BC (Table 1). Except for two examples that were found in the mountain areas of southern Xinjiang, the majority of cauldrons were recovered in the areas north of the Tian Shan mountains, such as Yili, Balikun and Altai (Fig. 1; Wang & Qi 1995: 277-94; Gong 1997: 16; Yue, et al. 1999: 252, 270). These areas have vast pastureland suitable for grazing sheep, cattle, horses and other animals. The concentrated distribution of cauldrons in northern Xinjiang shows the close link between the appearance of metal cauldrons and the rise of nomadic way of life in the region during the early first millennium BC.
According to their handle and foot designs, these cauldrons can be roughly classified into four types. Type I is characterized by a pair of rounded handles standing upright on the rim of the mouth (Fig. 2). Type II is distinguished by a pair of handles standing obliquely on the shoulder of the vessel (Fig. 3: 1-5). Type III is a developed form of Type I, with two handles decorated with "mushroom" design (Fig. 3: 6). This type is generally dated to the 2nd-4th centuries AD, being much later than the other types (Erdy 1995: 45-46). In contrast to the above three types that have only a single stand, Type IV has three feet and can thus be called 'tripod cauldron' (Fig. 3: 7).
Table 1 Early metal cauldrons recovered in Xinjiang, Northwest ChinaNo. | Location of finds | Dimensions (cm) | Types | Figures |
1 | Tiereketi, Habahe, Altai | H: 25.1; D (mouth): 20.7-21.8 | I | 2: 1 |
2 | Sha'erbulake, Fuyun, Altai | H: 37.2; D (mouth): 27-28 | I (?) | 2: 2 |
3 | Gongliu, Yili | H: 61; D (mouth): 38 | I | 2: 3 |
4 | Nileke, Yili | H: 34; D (mouth): 26.5 | I | |
5 | Huocheng,Yili | H: 56.4; D (mouth): 36.7-41.7 | I | |
6 | Xiao'erbulake, Xinyuan, Yili | H: 76; D (mouth): 40.5 | I | 2: 4 |
7 | Wensu, Akesu | H: 50; D (mouth): 33.2 | I | 2: 5 |
8 | Shufu, Kashgar | H: 57; D (mouth): 46; D (foot): 17 | I | 2: 6 |
9 | Lanzhouwanzi, Balikun, Hami | H: 50.5; D (mouth): 33 | I | 2: 7 |
10 | Dahe, Balikun, Hami | H (preserved): 36 | I | 2: 8 |
11 | Nanwan, Balikun, Hami | H: c.50 | I | 2: 9 |
12 | Hongshan, Balikun, Hami | H (pres.): 35.5; D (mouth): 22 | I | 2: 10 |
13 | Urumchi | H: 51; D (mouth): 33 | I | 2: 11 |
14 | Ka'erzi, Qitai, Changji | H: 56.5; D (mouth): 30 | I | 2: 12 |
15 | Taleqiate, Habahe, Altai | H: 49; D (mouth): 40.4 | II | 3: 1 |
16 | Nanwan, Balikun, Hami | H (preserved): 26.7;D (mouth): 29; D (belly): 32 | II | 3: 2 |
17 | Xinyuan, Yili | H: 57.5; D (mouth): 42 | II | 3: 3 |
18 | Zhaosu, Yili | H (preserved): 31; D (mouth): 47 | II | |
19 | Shihezi | H: c.30; D (mouth): c.30 | II | 3: 4 |
20 | Urumchi | H: c.30 | II | |
21 | Biliuhe, Qitai, Changji | H: c.50 | II (?) | 3: 5 |
22 | Huocheng, Yili | H: 48.5; D (mouth): 39.8-45.5 | II | |
23 | Nanshan, Urumchi | H: 57: D (mouth): 39 | III | 3: 6 |
24 | Bu'erjin, Altai | H: c.30 ? | ||
25 | Xinyuan, Yili | H: 44.5 D: 42 (mouth) | IV | 3: 7 |
Note: In this Table, H = Height; D = Diameter.
A few observations on the cauldron finds in Xinjiang may be made here. First, while these cauldrons can be classified into four major types, their sizes and some details of shapes and decorations show quite a large range of variants, and one cannot find two identical specimens. This suggests that the sources for these cauldrons were likely diverse and localized. Second, the Type I cauldrons from Xinjiang are comparable in form to those found in North China, Mongolia and southern Siberia, which have been dated roughly to the 8th-4th centuries BC (Liu 1987: 62; Chlenova 1994: 506; Takahama 1994:1-6). The dates for the Xinjiang specimens are likely within a similar chronological range, only the cauldron with a pierced stand from Fuyun in Altai (Fig. 2: 2) should be considered within a later date.
Third, the cauldrons of Type II and Type IV typologically resemble those found in the Semirechiye region in Kazakhstan and Kirghizia, which have been attributed by Russian scholars to the Saka culture of the 7th-4th centuries BC (Akishev & Kushayev 1963: 111) or 5th-3rd centuries BC (Bernshtam 1949: 353-4, 1952: 47). This resemblance suggests that the Xinjiang specimens could probably be considered within the Saka context and dated to the 7th-3rd centuries BC. Among the Type II cauldrons, the one from Biliuhe in Qitai is worthy of special attention. It is featured with a pair of "three-legs" handles standing horizontally on the shoulder (Fig. 3: 5). Cauldrons with this characteristic design of handles were also recovered in southern Siberia. It seems very probable that the Xinjiang specimen was related to those similar pieces in southern Siberia in some way.
Fourth, only one specimen of Type III cauldrons has been recovered so far in Xinjiang (Fig. 3: 6). It has many close parallels in Eastern Europe, revealing the existence of a long-distant connection. Erdy (1995: 46) suggests that the Xinjiang specimen is an early local development in the vicinity of the Altai' in the 2nd century AD rather than the one that was returned from Europe later. Finally, except for a few decorated with simple geometric patterns such as lines and triangles, most cauldrons from Xinjiang are plain on surface. This shows a clear contrast to those heavily decorated Scythian cauldrons of the 7th-4th centuries BC from western Eurasia (Yukishima 1995; Jacobson 1995: 189-92).
2. The metallurgical analysis of the metal
cauldrons
With the kind support of Xinjiang archaeologists,
five samples taken from five different cauldrons
were obtained. The dates and origins of these
cauldrons are given in Table 2. The elemental
analysis was also conducted on the polished
sections in a scanning electron microscope
(SEM) by using an energy-dispersive X-ray
fluorescence analyser (EDXA). It should be
noted that what the EDXA analysis measures
is actually the micro-composition that can
only be taken as a general indication of
the overall composition in a sample. Table
3 presents the results of elemental analyses
of the five samples.
Lab. no. | Location | Dates | Types | Figures |
107 | Xinyuan, Yili | 750-200 BC | IV | 3: 7 |
108 | Nanwan, Balikun, Hami | 700-200 BC | II | 3: 2 |
109 | Urumchi | 100-400 AD | III | 3: 6 |
118 | Tacheng | 800-400 BC | I or II? | |
123 | Biliuhe, Qitai, Changji | 800-400 BC | II | 3: 5 |
Note: In this and the following tables, Lab. no. = Laboratory number.Table 3 The results of elemental analyses of cauldron samples (wt%)
Lab. no. | Cu | Sn | Pb | As | Sb | S | O | Alloys |
107 | 98.6 | det. | det. | n.d. | det. | det. | 1.8 | Cu (O) |
108 | 97.2 | n.d. | det. | n.d. | 1.2 | 0.5 | Fe (det.) | Cu-Sb (S, Fe) |
109 | 94.9 | 2.9 | 2.3 | n.d. | n.d. | Cl (det.) | det. | Cu-Sn-Pb |
118 | 98.7 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | 1.3 | det. | Cu (S) |
123 | 96.4 | n.d. | n.d. | 2.2 | 1.5 | det. | n.d. | Cu-As-Sb |
Note: In this table, n.d. = no detection, det. = detected.
Table 3 shows that the four earlier cauldrons of Types I, II and IV (nos. 107, 108, 118 and 123) were made of copper with a small amount of minor elements such as As, Sb and S, while the only Type III cauldron of later date from Urumchi was of Cu-Sn-Pb alloy. The reason for using copper rather than tin bronze to cast cauldrons is not so clear but appears to be related to the availability of metal sources in the relevant localities. In this regard, it is worth noting that the two cauldrons containing 1-1.5% Sb (nos. 108 and 123) are from the areas close to each other along the northern foothills of the Tian Shan. This may hint at the availability of a local Sb-containing copper source in eastern Xinjiang. To clarify this issue further investigation is required.
As mentioned previously, the cauldron from Biliuhe with a pair of "three-legs" handles recalls similar pieces recovered in southern Siberia. This typological correspondence seems to be strengthened by the elemental analysis, because the alloy of Cu-As-Sb employed for manufacturing the Biliuhe cauldron was widely used in southern Siberia during the late first millennium BC, especially for fabricating belt plaques in animal styles (Devlet 1980: 32-33).
Intriguingly, the majority of cauldrons recovered in southern Siberia were also made of pure copper instead of tin bronze. According to Bogdanova-Berezobskaya (1963: 136, 153), among the twenty cauldrons analyzed, thirteen are pure copper, five arsenical copper (As 1- 1.5%), one tin bronze, and one Cu-Sn-Pb alloy. But in the cases of implements and weapons, such as knives, sickles, daggers and mirrors, tin bronze and arsenical copper were preferred to be employed as raw materials. It appears that copper rather than copper alloys were intentionally chosen for casting cauldrons in southern Siberia during the first millennium BC. But whether this is also true for Xinjiang needs further research.
On the surface of some cauldrons from Xinjiang, traces of the joint-lines of casting molds can be seen, indicating that they were cast by using piece-molds. It is well known that the piece-molds casting is a typical Chinese technology that was widely employed to cast thousands of ritual bronzes during the Shang and Zhou periods (17th-3rd centuries BC). So and Bunker (1995: 108) once published a cauldron with characteristic Chinese-style decoration as well as two-piece mold marks on the surface. They dated it to the 8th century BC and considered it as one of the earliest examples of its kind. Cauldrons with Chinese-style decoration but in smaller sizes were found also in Shanxi and Gansu provinces as well as in a museum collection in Japan (Wang Changqi 1989:7-10; Takahama 1997: 169). These examples seem to provide a clue for understanding the early stages of adopting piece-molds to the cauldron shape. So and Bunker (1995: 108) already suggests that 'the Chinese may have been among the first peoples to make the shape, which then traveled far into western Eurasia, becoming the signature article of the peoples in the Black Sea region'.
While the casting technology may have originated in northern China, the shape of cauldron may not necessarily be the same too. Chlenova (1994: 506) considers that the origin of the Scythian cauldrons goes back to those from Iran and partially from the Transcaucasian region and Asia Minor. Bunker (1997: 178) also considers that the cauldron shape and handles have no Chinese antecedents and traces the origins of the nomadic cauldron to Transcaucasia, where a cauldron made clearly in hammered metal was found. To get a better understanding of this issue, a comparative research is needed to bring together all cauldron finds from both eastern and western Eurasian steppes.
With regard to the cauldron shapes, it should be noted that the tripod cauldrons used by Saka people in the region of Semirechiye and Yili are quite similar in form to the three-legged "ding" vessels of the Shang and Zhou dynasties in the central plains of China (Bernshtam 1949: 351-2). This similarity may imply the presence of cultural influence from the east to Xinjiang and Semirechiye during the mid-first millennium BC (An 1996: 74).
3. Conclusions
The discovery of more than two dozens of
metal cauldrons in Xinjiang provides us with
important evidence for understanding cultural
changes in the region from the early first
millennium BC. The elemantal analysis of
five cauldron samples has revealed that four
early cauldrons were made of copper or copper
with a small amount of As, Sb or S, while
the one of later date was of Cu-Sn-Pb alloy.
It is interesting to notice that two cauldrons
contain 1-1.5% Sb and one of them was made
of Cu-As-Sb alloy. The identification of
Cu-As-Sb alloy points to the connection with
southern Siberia. It has also been suggested
that most of Xinjiang cauldrons were cast
in piece-molds and the technology most likely
originated in northern China.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Professor Takahama Shu and Dr. Hirao Yoshimitsu for their guidance and support of my work. I am also grateful to Professor Wang Bo and Dr. Li Xiao for kindly providing me with five cauldron samples; to Dr. S.V. Demidenko for generously offering me the information about cauldron finds in Siberia; to Professors Hayashi Toshio and Yukishima Koichi for their interest in my research. Finally, I wish to express my deep gratitude to the Japan Society of the Promotion of Science for the considerable financial support of my work.
References
Abbreviations Used in References
KG Kaogu (Archaeology)
KYW Kaogu yu wenwu (Archaeology and Cultural
Relics)
XJWW Xinjiang wenwu (Cultural Relics in Xinjiang)
Figures
Figure 1.
The distribution of metal cauldron finds in Xinjiang, Northwest China
Figure 2.
The metal cauldrons of Type I recovered in
Xinjiang:
1. from Tiereketi, Habahe, Altai; 2. from Sha'erbulake, Fuyun, Altai; 3. from Gongliu, Yili; 4. from Xiao'erbulake, Yili; 5. from Wensu, Akesu; 6. from Shufu, Kashgar; 7. Lanzhouwanzi, Balikun, Hami; 8. from Dahe, Balikun, Hami; 9. from Nanwan, Balikun, Hami; 10. from Hongshan, Balikun, Hami; 11. from Urumchi; 12. from Ka'erzi, Qitai, Changji (1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 12. after Wang & Qi 1995: 290, Fig. 11; 3. after Zhang & Zhao 1991: 42, Fig. 1; 5, 6, 8-10. my own drawings after photos).
Figure 3.
The metal cauldrons of Types II, III and IV recovered in Xinjiang: 1-5. Type II; 1. from Taleqiate, Habahe, Altai; 2. from Nanwan, Balikun, Hami; 3. from Xinyuan, Yili; 4. from Shihezi; 5. from Biliuhe, Qitai, Changji; 6.Type III, from Nanshan, Urumchi; 7. Type IV, from Xinyuan, Yili (1, 2. after Wang & Qi 1995: 290, Fig. 11; 3-6. my own drawings after photos; 7. after Li & Dang 1995: 44, Fig. 3).